Evolution of Management Theory

raise In this paper, we insure how guidance scheme concerning appropriate curbment pr affectices has evolved in modern multiplication, and look at the central concerns that make water guided its development. First, we examine the so-c altogethered classical anxiety theories that emerged around the turn of the twentieth century. These chuck up the sponge in scientific attention, which concenteres on matching mess and lying-ins to maximize strength and administrative concern, which steeringes on identifying the principles that will lead to the creation of the most efficient strategy of organization and caution.Next, we visualize behavioural focussing theories, essential both in front and by and by the randomness World War, which focus on how managers should lead and authorization their exertforces to accession effectance. Then we discuss management science conjecture, which developed during the Second World War and which has indorse up increasingly grea t as re seemers im office staff developed close analytical and valued techniques to encourage managers measure and underwrite organisational carrying into action.Finally, we discuss business in the 1960s and 1970s and focus on the theories that were developed to help explain how the international environment affects the federal agency organizations and managers operate. By the end of this chapter, bingle would understand the slip federal agency in which management Theory has evolved over time. You will as well understand how stinting, political, and cultural forces shed affected the development of these theories and the ways in which managers and their organizations behave. INTRODUCTIONChanges in management practices slip away as managers, theorists, researchers, and consultants seek freshly ways to increase organisational efficiency and effectiveness. The driving force behind the phylogenesis of management surmise is the search for crack ways to employ organizatio nal resources. Advances in management possible action typically move on as managers and researchers acquire better ways to perform the principal management tasks planning, organizing, leading, and controlling human racekind and other organizational resources.The evolution of modern management began in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, after the industrial revolution had swept through Europe, Canada, and the united States. In the tender economic climate, managers of all types of organizationspolitical, educational, and economicwere increasingly trying to come upon better ways to satisfy customers inescapably. M either major economic, technical, and cultural changes were taking place at this time. The introduction of steam power and the development of sophisticated machinery and equipment changed the way in which goods were ca-cad, particularly in the weaving and clothing industries.Small workshops run by experient workers who produced hand-manufactured produc ts (a scheme called crafts production) were being replaced by large factories in which sophisticated machines controlled by hundreds or even thousands of unskilled or semiskilled workers made products. Owners and managers of the stark naked factories found themselves unprep ard for the challenges accompanying the change from small-scale crafts production to large-scale mechanized manufacturing.Many of the managers and supervisors had only a technical orientation, and were unprep bed for the social problems that occur when people work together in large conventions (as in a factory or shop system). Managers began to search for tender techniques to manage their organizations resources, and presently they began to focus on ways to increase the efficiency of the workertask mix. CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT THEORIES One of the first aims of management radiation diagram, the classical management theory, developed during the Industrial Revolution when new problems related to the factory sys tem began to appear.Managers were unsure of how to train employees ( numerous of them non-English speaking immigrants) or deal with change magnitude parturiency dissatisfaction, so they began to test solutions. As a result, the classical management theory developed from efforts to find the one best way to perform and manage tasks. This school of thought is made up of two branches scientific and administrative management, described in the following sections Scientific c argon Scientific counseling arose beca drop of the need to increase productivity and efficiency.The emphasis was on trying to find the best way to get the most work done by examining how the work process was actually accomplished and by scrutinizing the skills of the workforce. The classical scientific school owes its roots to several major contri exactlyors, including Frederick Taylor, Henry Gantt, and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. Frederick Taylor is oft called the father of scientific management. Taylor believ ed that organizations should study tasks and develop precise procedures. Also, he developed an incentive system that paid workers more than money for meeting the new standard.As a result, umteen an(prenominal) theorists followed Taylors philosophy when development their own principles of management. Henry Gantt, an henchman of Taylors, developed the Gantt chart, a bar graph that measures planned and completed work along each stage of production. Based on time quite of quantity, volume, or weight, this visual display chart has been a astray utilize planning and control tool since its development in 1910. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, a husband-and-wife team, analyze job motions. In Franks early c beer as an prentice bricklayer, he was interested in standardization and method study.He watched bricklayers and saw that several(prenominal) workers were slow and inefficient, while others were in truth productive. He discovered that each bricklayer employ a different set of motio ns to lay bricks. From his observations, Frank isolated the grassroots movements necessary to do the job and eliminated unnecessary motions. Workers using these movements raised their railroad siding from 1,000 to 2,700 bricks per day. This was the first motion study designed to isolate the best potential method of performing a given job. Later, Frank and his wife Lillian studied job motions using a motion-picture camera and a split-second clock.When her husband died at the age of 56, Lillian continued their work. Thanks to these contributors and others, the elementary ideas regarding scientific management developed. They acknowledge the following Developing new standard methods for doing each job Selecting, training, and developing workers instead of allowing them to choose their own tasks and train themselves Developing a life story of cooperation between workers and management to ensure that work is carried out in consistency with devised procedures Dividing work betwee n orkers and management in almost equal sh bes, with each assemblage taking over the work for which it is best fitted Administrative counseling Whereas scientific management focused on the productivity of somebodys, the classical administrative approach concentrates on the total organization. The emphasis is on the development of managerial principles rather than work methods. Contributors to this school of thought include Max Weber, Henri Fayol, bloody shame Parker Follett, and Chester I. Barnard. These theorists studied the flow of information within an organization and emphasized the richness of understanding how an organization operated.In the late 1800s, Max Weber disliked that many European organizations were managed on a personal family-like basis and that employees were loyal to individual supervisors rather than to the organization. He believed that organizations should be managed impersonally and that a formal organizational structure, where specific rules were followed , was important. In other words, he didnt think that control should be based on a persons personality. He thought authority should be something that was part of a persons job and passed from individual to individual as one person left and another took over.This non-personal, objective form of organization was called a bureaucracy. Weber believed that all bureaucracies have the following characteristics A well-defined pecking sound out Division of labor and specialization Rules and regulations. Impersonal dealingships between managers and employees. Competence. Records. Henri Fayol, a cut mining engineer, developed 14 principles of management based on his management experiences. These principles nominate modern-day managers with prevalent guidelines on how a supervisor should swot her department and manage her staff.Although later research has created controversy over many of the following principles, they are still widely used in management theories. They are Division of work Authority and responsibility Discipline symmetry of command Unity of direction Subordination of individual interest to general interest Remuneration of personnel Centralization Scalar chain holy order Equity Stability of tenure of personnel Initiative Esprit de corps bloody shame Parker Follett stressed the importance of an organization establishing common goals for its employees.However, she also began to think roughly differently than the other theorists of her day, discarding command-style hierarchical organizations where employees were treated like robots. She began to talk most such things as ethics, power, and leadership. She encouraged managers to allow employees to participate in end making. She stressed the importance of people rather than techniques a concept very much before her time. As a result, she was a pioneer and oftentimes not taken seriously by management scholars of her time. But times change and innovative ideas from the past suddenl y take on new meanings.Much of what managers do today is based on the fundamentals that Follett established more than 80 years ago. Chester Barnard, who was president of New Jersey Bell cry Company, introduced the idea of the informal organization cliques (exclusive groups of people) that naturally form within a company. He felt that these informal organizations provided necessary and vital communication functions for the general organization and that they could help the organization accomplish its goals. Barnard felt that it was particularly important for managers to develop a sense of common purpose where a willingness to support is strongly encouraged.He is credited with developing the acceptance theory of management, which emphasizes the willingness of employees to accept that managers have legitimate authority to act. Barnard felt that four factors affected the willingness of employees to accept authority The employees must understand the communication. The employees acce pt the communication as being unvarying with the organizations purposes. The employees get hold that their actions will be consistent with the needs and desires of the other employees. The employees feel that they are mentally and physically able to carry out the order.Barnards benevolence for and understanding of employee needs positioned him as a bridge to the behavioral school of management, the next school of thought to emerge. Behavioral Management Theory As management research continued in the 20th century, questions began to come up regarding the interactions and motivations of the individual within organizations. Management principles developed during the classical period were barely not useful in dealing with many management situations and could not explain the behavior of individual employees. In short, classical theory ignore employee motivation and behavior.As a result, the behavioral school was a natural showtime of this revolutionary management experiment. Theb ehavioral management theoryis often called the human relations movement because it addresses the human dimension of work. Behavioral theorists believed that a better understanding of human behavior at work, such as motivation, conflict, expectations, and group dynamics, purifyd productivity. The theorists who contributed to this school viewed employees as individuals, resources, and assets to be developed and worked with not as machines, as in the past.Several individuals and experiments contributed to this theory. Elton Mayoscontributions came as part of theHawthorne studies,a series of experiments that stringently applied classical management theory only to reveal its shortcomings. The Hawthorne experiments consisted of two studies conducted at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in bread from 1924 to 1932. The first study was conducted by a group of engineers seeking to go through the relationship of lighting levels to worker productivity.Surprisingly enough, they discovered that worker productivity increased as the lighting levels decreased that is, until the employees were unable to see what they were doing, after which performance naturally declined. A few years later, a second group of experiments began. Harvard researchers Mayo and F. J. Roethlisberger supervised a group of five women in a bank wiring room. They gave the women special privileges, such as the right to earmark their workstations without permission, take rest periods, enjoy free lunches, and have variations in invent levels and workdays.This experiment also resulted in significantly increased rates of productivity. In this case, Mayo and Roethlisberger concluded that the increase in productivity resulted from the supervisory transcription rather than the changes in lighting or other associated worker benefits. Because the experimenters became the chief(a) supervisors of the employees, the intense interest they displayed for the workers was the basis for the increa sed motivation and resulting productivity. Essentially, the experimenters became a part of the study and influenced its outcome.This is the origin of the termHawthorne effect,which describes the special attention researchers give to a studys subjects and the impact that attention has on the studys findings. The general conclusion from the Hawthorne studies was that human relations and the social needs of workers are crucial aspects of business management. This principle of human motivation helped revolutionize theories and practices of management. Abraham Maslow,a practicing psychologist, developed one of the most widely recognizedneed theories,a theory of motivation based upon a consideration of human needs.His theory of human needs had three assumptions pitying needs are never completely satisfied. Human behavior is purpose-built and is motivated by the need for satisfaction. Needs can be classified ad according to a hierarchical structure of importance, from the lowest to hi ghest. Maslow broke down(p) the needs hierarchy into five specific areas Physiological needs. Maslow grouped all physical needs necessary for maintaining basic human well-being, such as food and drink, into this category. After the need is satisfied, however, it is no longer is a motivator. gum elastic needs.These needs include the need for basic security, stability, protection, and freedom from fear. A median(prenominal) state exists for an individual to have all these needs generally satisfied. Otherwise, they become primary motivators. Belonging and love needs. After the physical and safety needs are satisfied and are no longer motivators, the need for be and love emerges as a primary motivator. The individual strives to establish important relationships with significant others. Esteem needs. An individual must develop self-confidence and wants to chance on status, reputation, fame, and glory. Self-actualization needs. Assuming that all the previous needs in the hierarc hy are satisfied, an individual feels a need to find himself. Maslows hierarchy of needs theory helped managers visualize employee motivation. Douglas McGregorwas heavily influenced by both the Hawthorne studies and Maslow. He believed that two basic kinds of managers exist. One type, the Theory X manager, has a negative view of employees and assumes that they are lazy, untrustworthy, and incapable of assuming responsibility.On the other hand, the Theory Y manager assumes that employees are not only trustworthy and capable of assuming responsibility, but also have high levels of motivation. An important aspect of McGregors idea was his belief that managers who hold either set of assumptions can createself-fulfilling prophecies that through their behavior, these managers create situations where subordinates act in ways that confirm the managers original expectations. As a group, these theorists discovered that people worked for inner satisfaction and not materialistic rewards, shifti ng the focus to the role of individuals in an organizations performance.Management Science Theory Management science theory is a contemporary approach to management that focuses on the use of rigid quantitative techniques to help managers make maximum use of organizational resources to produce goods and services. In essence, management science theory is a contemporary reference of scientific management, which, as developed by Taylor, also took a quantitative approach to measuring the workertask mix in order to raise efficiency.There are many branches of management science each of them deals with a specific set of concerns Quantitative management utilizes mathematical techniquessuch as linear and nonlinear programming, modelling, simulation, queuing theory, and chaos theoryto help managers decide, for example, how much memorial to hold at different times of the year, where to locate a new factory, and how best to invest an organizations financial capital. Operations management ( or operations research) provides managers with a set of techniques that they can use to analyze any aspect of an organizations production system to increase efficiency. derive quality management (TQM) focuses on analyzing an organizations input, conversion, and output activities to increase product quality. Management information systems (MIS) help managers design information systems that provide information about events occurring inside the organization as well as in its external environmentinformation that is vital for effective decisiveness making. All these subfields of management science provide tools and techniques that managers can use to help improve the quality of their decision making and increase efficiency and effectiveness.Organizational surround Theory An important milestone in the history of management thought occurred when researchers went beyond the study of how managers can influence behavior within organizations to consider how managers control the organization s relationship with its external environment, or organizational environmentthe set of forces and conditions that operate beyond an organizations boundaries but affect a managers ability to acquire and utilize resources.Resources in the organizational environment include the raw materials and skilled people that an organization requires to produce goods and services, as well as the support of groups including customers who subvert these goods and services and provide the organization with financial resources. One way of ascertain the relative success of an organization is to consider how effective its managers are at runing scarce and valuable resources. The importance of studying the environment became clear after the development of open-systems theory and contingency theory during the 1960s Contingency TheoryAnother milestone in management theory was the development of contingency theory in the 1960s by Tom Burns and G. M. Stalker in the United Kingdom and Paul Lawrence and Jay Lorsch in the United States. 39 The crucial pass on of contingency theory is that there is no one best way to organize The organizational structures and the control systems that managers choose depend onare dependent on(p) oncharacteristics of the external environment in which the organization operates. agree to contingency theory, the characteristics of the environment affect an organizations ability to obtain resources.To maximize the likelihood of gaining access to resources, managers must allow an organizations departments to organize and control their activities in ways most likely to allow them to obtain resources, given the constraints of the particular environment they face. In other words, how managers design the organizational hierarchy, choose a control system, and lead and motivate their employees is contingent on the characteristics of the organizational environment. CONCLUSION The search for efficiency started with the study of how managers could improve persontask relationships to increase efficiency.The concept of job specialization and sectionalisation of labour remains the basis for the design of work settings in modern organizations. New developments like lean production and total quality management are often viewed as advances on the early scientific management principles developed by Taylor and the Gilbreths. Max Weber and Henri Fayol outlined principles of bureaucracy and judicature that are as relevant to managers today as when they were written at the turn of the twentieth century. Much of modern management research refines these principles to showcase contemporary conditions.For example, the increasing interest in the use of cross-departmental teams and the empowerment of workers are issues that managers also faced a century ago. Researchers have described many different approaches to managerial behaviour, including Theories X and Y. Often, the managerial behaviour that researchers suggest invents the context of their own histor ical era and culture. Mary Parker Follett advocated managerial behaviours that did not reflect accepted modes of managerial behaviour at the time, but her work was mostly ignored until conditions changed.The various branches of management science theory provide rigorous quantitative techniques that give managers more control over their organizations use of resources to produce goods and services. The importance of studying the organizations external environment became clear after the development of open-systems theory and contingency theory during the 1960s. A main focus of contemporary management research is to find methods to help managers improve the way they utilize organizational resources and compete successfully in the global environment.Strategic management and total quality management are two important approaches intended to help managers make better use of organizational resources. REFERENCES CliffsNotes. com, (2013). Classical Schools of Management. http//www. cliffsnote s. com/study_guide/topicArticleId-8944,articleId-8851. html. David Sibbet, (1997). 75 Years of Management Ideas and Practice. Supplement, Harvard Business Review, reprint number 97500. David Stauffer,(2011). An Overview of Management Theories. http//www. ernsanalysis. com/sjsu/ise250/history. htm James Swartz, (1994). Evolution of Management Thought. Productivity Press, Portland OR Lyndsay Swinton, (2010). Frederick W. Taylor Master of Scientific Management. http//www. skymark. com/resources/leaders/taylor. asp M. Bosman, (2010). 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